There is a renaissance that is occurring in chemical and process engineering, and it is crucial for today's scientists, engineers, technicians, and operators to stay current. With so many changes over the last few decades in equipment and processes, petroleum refining is almost a living document, constantly needing updating. With no new refineries being built, companies are spending their capital re-tooling and adding on to existing plants. Refineries are like small cities, today, as they grow bigger and bigger and more and more complex. A huge percentage of a refinery can be changed, literally, from year to year, to account for the type of crude being refined or to integrate new equipment or processes.
This book is the most up-to-date and comprehensive coverage of the most significant and recent changes to petroleum refining, presenting the state-of-the-art to the engineer, scientist, or student. Useful as a textbook, this is also an excellent, handy go-to reference for the veteran engineer, a volume no chemical or process engineering library should be without. Written by one of the world's foremost authorities, this book sets the standard for the industry and is an integral part of the petroleum refining renaissance. It is truly a must-have for any practicing engineer or student in this area.
Petroleum Refining Design and Applications Handbook, Volume 1
Table of contents
Preface xix
Acknowledgments xxi
About the Author xxiii
1 Introduction 1
References 6
2 Composition of Crude Oils and Petroleum Products 7
2.1 Hydrocarbons 8
2.1.1 Alkynes Series 12
2.2 Aromatic Hydrocarbons 14
2.3 Heteroatomic Organic Compounds 15
2.3.1 Non-Hydrocarbons 15
2.3.2 Sulfur Compounds 18
2.4 Thiols 18
2.5 Oxygen Compounds 20
2.6 Nitrogen Compounds 22
2.7 Resins and Asphaltenes 23
2.8 Salts 24
2.9 Carbon Dioxide 24
2.10 Metallic Compounds 24
2.11 Products Composition 25
2.11.1 Liquefied Petroleum Gas (LPG) (C3 and C4) 26
2.11.2 Gasoline (C5 to C11) 26
2.11.3 Condensate (C4, C5 and C6 >) 27
2.11.4 Gas Fuel Oils (C12 to C19) 27
2.11.5 Kerosene 27
2.11.6 Diesel Fuel 28
2.11.7 Fuel Oils # 4, 5, and 6 28
2.11.8 Residual Fuel Oil 28
2.11.9 Natural Gas 29
References 30
3 Characterization of Petroleum and Petroleum Fractions 31
3.1 Introduction 31
3.1.1 Crude Oil Properties 32
3.1.2 Gravity, API 32
3.1.3 Boiling Point Range 33
3.1.4 Characterization Factor 33
3.1.5 The Universal Oil Product Characterization factor, KUOP 34
3.1.6 Carbon Residue, wt% 34
3.1.7 Nitrogen Content, wt% 36
3.1.8 Sulfur Content, wt% 36
3.1.9 Total Acid Number (TAN) 36
3.1.10 Salt Content, pounds/1000 barrels 36
3.1.11 Metals, parts/million (ppm) by weight 36
3.1.12 Pour Point (oF or DegreesC) 36
3.2 Crude Oil Assay Data 37
3.2.1 Whole crude oil average properties 37
3.2.2 Fractional properties 37
3.3 Crude Cutting Analysis 37
3.4 Crude Oil Blending 37
3.5 Laboratory Testing of Crude Oils 46
3.5.1 True Boiling Point (TBP) Curve 46
3.5.2 ASTM D86 Distillation 46
3.5.3 Boiling Points 47
3.5.4 Conversion Between ASTM and TBP Distillation 49
3.5.5 Petroleum Pseudo-Components 54
3.5.6 Pseudo-Component Normal Boiling Points 55
3.5.7 ASTM D1160 Distillation 55
3.5.8 Determination of ASTM IBP, 10%, 20-90% Points of Blend 55
3.5.9 ASTM 10-90% Points 56
3.5.10 Initial Boiling Point Determination 56
3.5.11 ASTM End Point of Blend 56
3.5.12 Flash Point 56
3.5.13 Flash Point, DegreesF, as a Function of Average Boiling Point 57
3.5.14 Smoke Point of Kerosenes 57
3.5.15 Luminometer Number 57
3.5.16 Reid Vapor Pressure (RVP) 57
3.5.17 Vapor Pressure of Narrow Hydrocarbon Cuts 58
3.6 Octanes 58
3.7 Cetanes 58
3.7.1 Cetane Index 59
3.8 Diesel Index 59
3.9 Determination of the Lower Heating Value of Petroleum Fractions 59
10.15 Chemical Release and Flash Fire: A Case Study of the Alkylation Unit at the Delaware City Refining Company (DCRC) Involving Equipment Maintenance Incident 358
References 362
11 Hydrogen Production and Purification 365
11.1 Hydrogen Requirements in a Refinery 365
11.2 Process Chemistry 366
11.3 High-Temperature Shift Conversion 368
11.4 Low-Temperature Shift Conversion 368
11.5 Gas Purification 368
11.6 Purification of Hydrogen Product 369
11.7 Hydrogen Distribution System 370
11.8 Off-Gas Hydrogen Recovery 371
11.9 Pressure Swing Adsorption (PSA) Unit 371
11.10 Refinery Hydrogen Management 375
11.11 Hydrogen Pinch Studies 377
References 379
12 Gas Processing and Acid Gas Removal 381
12.1 Introduction 381
12.2 Diesel Hydrodesulfurization (DHDS) 383
12.3 Hydrotreating Reactions 383
12.4 Gas Processing 388
12.4.1 Natural Gas 388
12.4.2 Gas Processing Methods 389
12.4.3 Reaction Gas Processes 390
12.4.4 Sweetening Process 390
12.4.5 MEROX Process 390
12.5 Sulfur Management 391
12.5.1 Sulfur Recovery Processes 393
12.5.2 Tail Gas Clean Up 401
12.6 Physical Solvent Gas Processes 401
12.6.1 Physical and Chemical Processes 402
12.6.2 Advantages and Disadvantages of the Sulfinol (R) Process 402
12.7 Carbonate Process 402
12.8 Solution Batch Process 403
12.9 Process Description of Gas Processing using UniSim (R) Simulation 405
12.10 Gas Dryer (Dehydration) Design 410
12.10.1 The Equations 412
12.10.2 Pressure Drop ( P) 413
12.10.3 Fouled Bed 413
12.11 Kremser-Brown-Sherwood Method-No Heat of Absorption 415
12.11.1 Absorption: Determine Component Absorption in Fixed Tray Tower (Adapted in part from Ref. 12) 415
12.11.2 Absorption: Determine the Number of Trays for Specified Product Absorption 417
12.11.3 Stripping: Determine the Number of Theoretical Trays and Stripping Steam or Gas Rate for a Component Recovery 418
12.11.4 Stripping: Determine Stripping-Medium Rate for a Fixed Recovery 420
12.12 Absorption: Edmister Method 421
12.12.1 Absorption and Stripping Efficiency 427
12.13 Gas Treating Troubleshooting 432
12.13.1 High Exit Gas Dew Point 432
12.13.2 High Glycol Losses 432
12.13.3 Glycol Contamination 432
12.13.4 Poor Glycol Reconcentration 433
12.13.5 Low Glycol Circulation - Glycol Pump 433
12.13.6 High Pressure Drop Across Contactor 433
12.13.7 High Stripping Still Temperature 433
12.13.8 High Reboiler Pressure 433
12.13.9 Firetube Fouling/Hot Spots/Burn Out 433
12.13.10 High Gas Dew Points 433
12.13.11 Cause - Inadequate Glycol Circulation Rate 433
12.13.12 Low Reboiler Temperature 433
12.13.13 Flash Separator Failure 434
12.13.14 Cause - Insufficient Reconcentration of Glycol 434
12.13.15 Cause - Operating Conditions Different from Design 434
12.13.16 Cause - Low Gas Flow Rates 434
12.13.17 High Glycol Loss 434
12.14 Cause - Loss of Glycol Out of Still Column 434
12.15 The ADIP Process 435
12.16 Sour Water Stripping Process 435
References 438
Glossary of Petroleum and Technical Terminology 441
Appendix A Equilibrium K values 533
Appendix B Analytical Techniques 547
Appendix C Physical and Chemical Characteristics of Major Hydrocarbons 557
Appendix D A List of Engineering Process Flow Diagrams and Process Data Sheets 573