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Brain and Behavior: A Cognitive Neuroscience Perspective addresses the central aims of cognitive neuroscience, seeking to examine the brain not only by its components but also by their functions. It highlights the principles, discoveries, and remaining mysteries of modern cognitive neuroscience.

Brain and Behavior covers a wide swath of territory critical for understanding the brain, from the basics of the nervous system, to sensory and motor systems, sleep, language, memory, emotions and motivation, social cognition, and brain disorders. Throughout the narrative, the authors emphasize the dynamically changing nature of the brain, through the mechanisms of neuroplasticity. Wherever possible, they refer to elements of neuroscience that are encountered in everyday life. Key
points and concepts are illustrated using case studies of rare but illuminating brain disorders. Brain and Behavior pulls together the best current knowledge about the brain while acknowledging current areas of ignorance and pointing students towards the most promising directions for future research. The Neuroplasticity chapter contains all of the information that is contained in the Cognitive Neuroscience book I currently use, and goes well beyond that book. I love the seamless integration of human, animal, and cellular levels of analysis. The case studies are gripping. The writing is excellent and engaging and the figures are beautiful. * Scott Slotnick, Boston College * This is a very well-written, up-to-date, and well-thought-out book on cognitive neuroscience. Particularly impressive is the inclusion of chapters not included in most cognitive neuroscience textbooks. These include psychiatric disorders and addiction. * Arne Ekstrom, University of California, Davis * I'm impressed by how well the book is tailored to an undergraduate course, both in its scope and in its content. The writing is more clear and digestible for an undergraduate audience than most neuroscience books. * Vonetta Dotson, University of Florida * I like the authors' approach. They ask intriguing, meaningful questions and write clearly. They express wonder at new methods in neuroscience that are answering question of how mind can emerge from the action of interconnected neurons. Their use of case studies and features keep the text moving. * Lewis Barker, Auburn University *

Brain and Behavior: A Cognitive Neuroscience Perspective

*Every chapter ends with the following: Conclusion, Key Principles, Key Terms, Review Questions, and Critical-Thinking Questions



Contents

Preface



Part I: The Basics



Chapter 1: Introduction

Learning Objectives

Starting Out: A Spark of Awe in the Darkness

Who Are We?

The Mission of Cognitive Neuroscience

Neuroscience Is a Relatively New Field

In Pursuit of Principles

The Functions behind the Form

Which Parts Matter?

What Is the Brain For?

How We Know What We Know

Connectional Methods

Correlational Methods

Research Methods: Magnetic Resonance Imaging

Lesion Methods

Stimulation Methods

A Toolbox of Complementary Methods

Thinking Critically about the Brain

Is the Brain Equipped to Understand Itself?

Biases and Pitfalls in Human Cognition

A Toolbox of Critical-Thinking Techniques

The Big Questions in Cognitive Neuroscience

Why Have a Brain at All? (Chapter 2)

How Is Information Coded in Neural Activity? (Chapter 3)

How Does the Brain Balance Stability against Change? (Chapter 4)

Why Does Vision Have So Little to Do with the Eyes? (Chapter 5)

How Does the Brain Stitch Together a Picture of the World from Different Senses? (Chapter 6)

How Does the Brain Control Our Actions? (Chapter 7)

What Is Consciousness? (Chapter 8)

How Are Memories Stored and Retrieved? (Chapter 9)

Why Do Brains Sleep and Dream? (Chapter 10)

How Does the Human Brain Acquire Its Unique Ability for Language? (Chapter 11)

How Do We Make Decisions? (Chapter 12)

What Are Emotions? (Chapter 13)

How Do We Set Our Priorities? (Chapter 14)

How Do I Know What You're Thinking? (Chapter 15)

What Causes Disorders of the Mind and the Brain? (Chapter 16)

The Payoffs of Cognitive Neuroscience

Healing the Disordered Brain

Enhancing Human Abilities

Blueprints for Artificial Cognition

Brain-Compatible Social Policies



Chapter 2: The Brain and Nervous System

Learning Objectives

Starting Out: The Brains of Creatures Great and Small

An Overview of the Nervous System

Why Put Your Neurons in a Brain at All?

The Common Features of Every Central Nervous System

Getting Oriented in the Brain

The Peripheral Nervous System

Separate Systems for the Inner and Outer Environments

A Nervous System with Segmental Organization

The Spinal Cord

Circuits within a Segment: Spinal Reflexes

Case Study: Christopher Reeve, 1952-2004

Complex Circuits across Segments: Central Pattern Generators

The Bigger Picture: In Search of a Cure for Spinal Cord Injury

The Brainstem

Medulla Oblongata and Pons

Neuroscience of Everyday Life: Why Do We Get the Hiccups?

Midbrain

Most Cranial Nerves Emerge from the Brainstem

The Cerebellum

Circuitry of the "Little Brain"

Functions of the Little Brain

The Diencephalon: Hypothalamus and Thalamus

Hypothalamus: A Keystone Structure in Homeostasis

Thalamus

Case Study: Waking the Brain

The Telencephalon: Cerebral Cortex and Basal Ganglia

Cerebral Cortex

Basal Ganglia

Research Methods: Cytoarchitecture of the Cortex

Uniting the Inside and Outside Worlds

The Limbic System

The Ventricular System and Brain Function

Conclusion

Key Principles

Key Terms

Review Questions

Critical-Thinking Questions



Chapter 3: Neurons and Synapses

Learning Objectives

Starting Out: The Kabuki Actor and the Pufferfish

The Cells of the Brain

Neurons: A Close-Up View

Many Different Types of Neurons

Glial Cells

Research Methods: Visualizing Neurons and Their Products

Synaptic Transmission: Chemical Signaling in the Brain

Release of Neurotransmitter at the Synapse

Types of Neurotransmitters

Receptors

Postsynaptic Potentials

The Bigger Picture: Psychoactive Drugs

Spikes: Electrical Signaling in the Brain

Adding Up the Signals

How an Action Potential Travels

Myelinating Axons to Make the Action Potential Travel Faster

Action Potentials Reach the Terminals and Cause Neurotransmitter Release

Case Study: Multiple Sclerosis

Neuroscience of Everyday Life: The Magic of a Local Anesthetic

What Do Spikes Mean? The Neural Code

Encoding Stimuli in Spikes

Decoding Spikes

Research Methods: Recording Action Potentials with Electrodes

Individuals and Populations

Populations of Neurons

Forming a Coalition: What Constitutes a Group?

Open Questions for Future Investigation



Chapter 4: Neuroplasticity

Learning Objectives

Starting Out: The Child with Half a Brain

The Brain Dynamically Reorganizes to Match Its Inputs

Changes to the Body Plan

Case Study: Phantom Sensation

Research Methods: Mapping Out the Brain

Changes to Sensory Input

The Brain Distributes Resources Based on Relevance

The Role of Behavior

The Role of Relevance: Gating Plasticity with Neuromodulation

Neuroscience of Everyday Life: Pianists and Violinists Have Different Brains

Case Study: The Government Worker with the Missing Brain

The Brain Uses the Available Tissue

Maps Adjust Themselves to the Available Brain Tissue

Cortical Reorganization after Brain Damage

A Sensitive Period for Plastic Changes

A Window of Time to Make Changes

Case Study: Danielle, the Feral Child in the Window

The Sensitive Period in Language

Neuromodulation in Young Brains

Hardwiring versus World Experience

Aspects of the Brain Are Preprogrammed

Experience Changes the Brain

Brains Rely on Experience to Unpack Their Programs Correctly

The Mechanisms of Reorganization

Neurons Compete for Limited Space

Competition for Neurotrophins

Rapid Changes: Unmasking Existing Connections

Slow Changes: Growth of New Connections

Changing the Input Channels

Case Study: The Man Who Climbs with his Tongue

The Bigger Picture: Adding New Peripherals





Part II: How the Brain Interacts with the World



Chapter 5: Vision

Learning Objectives

Starting Out: Vision Is More Than the Eyes

Visual Perception

What Is It Like to See?

Signal Transduction

Anatomy of the Visual System

Sensory Transduction: The Eye and Its Retina

Case Study: The Bionic Retina

Path to the Visual Cortex: The Lateral Geniculate Nucleus

The Visual Cortex

Two Eyes Are Better Than One: Stereo Vision

Neuroscience of Everyday Life: Random-Dot Stereograms

Higher Visual Areas

Secondary and Tertiary Visual Cortex: Processing Becomes More Complex

Ventral Stream: What an Object Is

The Bigger Picture: Reading the Movies in Our Minds

Dorsal Stream: How to Interact with the World

Case Study: The World in Snapshots

Attention and the Dorsal Stream

Comparing the Ventral and Dorsal Processing Streams

The Bigger Picture of the Visual Brain

Case Study: The Blind Woman Who Could See, Sort Of

Perception Is Active, Not Passive

Interrogating the Scene with Our Eyes

The Blind Spot

Seeing the Same Object Different Ways: Multistability

Binocular Rivalry: Different Images in the Two Eyes

We Don't See Most of What Hits Our Eyes: Fetching Information on a Need-to-Know Basis

Vision Relies on Expectations

Change Blindness

Saving Resources by Embedding Prior Experience

Unconscious Inference

Activity from Within

Feedback Allows an Internal Model



Chapter 6: Other Senses

Learning Objectives

Starting Out: The Man with the Bionic Ear

Detecting Data from the World

Hearing

Research Methods: Psychophysics

The Outer and Middle Ear

Converting Mechanical Information into Electrical Signals: The Inner Ear

Neuroscience of Everyday Life: The Undetectable Cell Phone

The Auditory Nerve and Primary Auditory Cortex

The Hierarchy of Sound Processing

Sound Localization

Balance

The Somatosensory System

Touch

Temperature

Pain

Case Study: The Pain of a Painless Existence

Proprioception

Interoception

The Somatosensory Pathway

Chemical Senses

Taste

Smell

The Sense of Flavor

Pheromones

The Brain Is Multisensory

Synesthesia

Combining Sensory Information

The Binding Problem

The Internal Model of the World

Case Study: The Paralyzed Supreme Court Justice Who Claimed He Could Play Football

Time Perception



Chapter 7: The Motor System

Learning Objectives

Starting Out: "'Locked-In Syndrome"'

Muscles

Skeletal Muscle: Structure and Function

The Neuromuscular Junction

The Spinal Cord

Lower Motor Neurons

Spinal Motor Circuits: Reflexes

Spinal Motor Circuits: Central Pattern Generators

Descending Pathways of Motor Control

The Cerebellum

The Circuitry of the Cerebellum

Motor Functions of the Cerebellum

Nonmotor Functions of the Cerebellum

The Motor Cortex

Motor Cortex: Neural Coding of Movements

Motor Cortex: Recent Controversies

The Bigger Picture: Neural Implants for Motor Control

The Prefrontal Cortex: Goals to Strategies to Tactics to Actions

The Functional Organization of the Prefrontal Cortex in Motor Control

Sensory Feedback

Mirror Neurons in Premotor Cortex

Control Stages of the Motor Hierarchy

Basal Ganglia

Components of the Basal Ganglia

Circuitry of the Basal Ganglia

Diseases of the Basal Ganglia

Medial and Lateral Motor Systems: Internally and Externally Guided Movement Control

Organization of Medial Motor Areas

Functions of Medial and Lateral Motor Systems

Neuroscience of Everyday Life: Why Can't I Multitask?

Did I Really Do That? The Neuroscience of Free Will

Research Methods: Neurosurgical Stimulation

Case Study: Alien Hand Syndrome



Part III: Higher Levels of Interaction



Chapter 8: Attention and Consciousness

Learning Objectives

Starting Out: The Stream of Consciousness

Awareness Requires Attention

Change Blindness

Inattentional Blindness

Neuroscience of Everyday Life: Stage Magic

Approaches to Studying Attention and Awareness

Attentional Orienting Paradigms: Aiming the "Spotlight" of Attention

The Oddball Paradigm: Monitoring a Physiological Measure of Attention

Uncoupling Sensory Input from Perception: Sensory Rivalry

Neural Mechanisms of Attention and Awareness

Seeking the Correlates of Consciousness

Hemineglect: A Disorder of Attention and Awareness

Case Study: Unaware of Half of the World

Neural Correlates of Attention: A Single Network, or Many?

Case Study: Whose Arm Is This, Anyway?

Sites of Attentional Modulation: Neurons and Neural Populations

The Biased-Competition Model of Attention

Attention and Single Neurons: Enhancing the Signal

Attention and Local Groups of Neurons

Synchronization, Attention, and Awareness

Coma and Vegetative State: Anatomy of the Conscious State

Why Should Synchronization Matter?

Unconsciousness: Coma and Vegetative State

Case Study: Waking the Brain

Midbrain and Thalamus: Key Players in the Conscious State

Anesthesia and Sleep: Rhythms of Consciousness

Sleep: Unraveling the Rhythm of Consciousness

Anesthesia: Reversible, Artificial Unconsciousness

Theories of Consciousness

Dualism: The Mind-Body Problem

Functionalist Theories of Consciousness

Consciousness and the Integration of Information



Chapter 9: Memory

Learning Objectives

Starting Out: "The Woman Who Cannot Forget"

The Many Kinds of Memory

Working and Long-Term Memory

Implicit Memory

Explicit Memory

Travels in Space and Time: The Hippocampus and Temporal Lobe

Case Study: Gone but Not Forgotten: Henry Molaison, 1926-2008

A Map of the Medial Temporal Lobe

Episodic Memory

Spatial Memory

Theories of Hippocampal Function

Unifying the Functions of the Hippocampus

Remembering the Future: Prospection and Imagination

How We Imagine Future Experiences

Research Methods: Localizing Human Brain Function

The Circuitry of Prospection and Recollection

Neuroscience of Everyday Life: Simonides and the Champions of Memory

Prospection in Other Species

Models of Prospection

The Confabulation of Reality

Confabulation in the Injured Brain

Case Study: The Woman with a Thirty-Year-Old Baby

The Anatomy of Spontaneous Confabulation

Confabulation in the Normal Brain

The Anatomy of a False Memory

The Bigger Picture: Scanning for the Truth

The Mechanisms of Memory

General Mechanisms of Learning and Memory

Memory as Synaptic Change

Long-Term Potentiation and Depression of Synaptic Connections

The NMDA Receptor

Consolidation and Reconsolidation

Associative Neural Networks

Beyond Synaptic Plasticity: The Frontiers of Memory Mechanisms

Whole Neurons as a Substrate for Memory?

New Neurons for New Memories

Spines: Another Structural Basis for Memory?

Looking inside the Cell: Memory in Chemical Reactions

Case Study: The Flies with Photographic Memory

Epigenetics: Making a Single Genome Play Different Tunes

The Mysteries of Memory

Are the Roles Of LTP and LTD Overstated?

The Timing of Spikes

The Limitations of Neural Networks

Neural Networks: Solving the Wrong Problem?

Remembering Relationships, Not Features

The Future of Memory Research



Chapter 10: Sleep

Learning Objectives

Starting Out: Caught between Sleeping and Waking

Sleep and the Brain

The Brain Is Active during Sleep

Research Methods: Electroencephalography

The Neural Networks of Sleep

The Brain during REM Sleep

The Circadian Rhythm

Entrainment of the Circadian Rhythm by Light Cues

The Circadian Rhythm Is Not Fixed

Case Study: The Shifted Circadian Rhythm

The Circadian Rhythm and Napping

The Bigger Picture: Schools and Circadian Rhythms

Why Do Brains Sleep?

Four Theories of Sleeping: Restoration, Survival, Simulation, Learning

Rehearsal

Forgetting

Insight and the Restructuring of Information

Dreaming

Dream Content

The Neuroscience of Everyday Life: Lucid Dreaming

Can Dreams Shed Light on Consciousness?

Dreams of the Future and How to Study Them

Sleep Deprivation and Disorders

Sleep Deprivation

Case Study: Staying Awake

Insomnia

Hypersomnia

Case Study: The Family Who Couldn't Sleep

Parasomnias



Chapter 11: Language and Lateralization

Learning Objectives

Starting Out: The Stuttering King

Speech, Language, and Communication

Aphasia: The Loss of Language

Case Study: The Woman Who Couldn't Find Her Words

Broca's Aphasia

Wernicke's Aphasia

Case Study: The Woman Who Makes Up Words

A Language Network

The Larger Picture of Language-Specific Regions

Dyslexia

Stuttering

Lateralization: The Two Hemispheres Are Not Identical

Tests for Dominance

Apraxia

Hemispheric Differences

Two Brains in One? The Case of the Split-Brain Patients

Thinking about Cerebral Asymmetry

Development of Language

Learning Language from Experience

Innate Language Tendencies

Socially and Emotionally Directed Learning

Research Methods: The Baby with No Privacy



Part IV: Motivated Behaviors



Chapter 12: Decision Making

Learning Objectives

Starting Out: A Fatal Mistake, at the Highest Place on Earth

How Do We Decide What to Do?

The Scorpion and the Frog

The Search for a "Physics" of Human Decisions

Homo economicus and Rational Choice Theory

The Predictably Irrational Homo sapiens

Homo sapiens versus Homo economicus

Confused by Uncertainty

The Framing Effect and the Endowment Effect

The Illusory Value of Procrastination

Where Do Our Irrational Decisions Come From?

Decision Making in Other Species

Do Irrational Decisions Come from Irrational People?

One Brain, Two Systems

How the Brain Decides

The Neural Mechanisms of Delay Discounting

Neural Mechanisms of Decisions under Risk

The Neural Basis of the Endowment Effect

The Neural Basis of the Framing Effect

The Common Currency of Subjective Value

Comparing Apples to Oranges

Research Methods: Charting the Landscape of Subjective Value

A Consistent Neural Basis for Subjective Value

Evaluation and the Orbitofrontal Cortex

One Currency, But Many Markets

The Neuroscience of Everyday Life: Snack Food or Brussels Sprouts?

A Hierarchy of Internally Guided Decision Making

Internally and Externally Guided Decision Making

Values into Goals

Goals into Plans

Plans into Behavior and Action

Modulators of Decision Making

Strategic Use of Decision-Making Systems

Neurotransmitter Effects on Decision Making

The Bigger Picture: How to Avoid the Scorpion's Sting



Chapter 13: Emotions

Learning Objectives

Starting Out: Sadness, at the Flip of a Switch

Early Theories of Emotion

Emotional Expressions: Signposts on a Landscape of Inner States

The James-Lange Theory of Emotion: A Bottom-Up Theory

The Cannon-Bard Theory: A Top-Down Theory

Case Study: Pathological Laughter and Crying

Two-Factor Theories: Reconciling Central and Peripheral Influences on Emotion

Core Limbic Structures: Amygdala and Hypothalamus

Hypothalamus: Internal States, Homeostatic Drives

Case Study: An Internal Growth of Rage

Do Hypothalamic Circuits Generate Inner Emotional Experiences?

Amygdala: Externally Generated States and Drives

The Amygdala and Emotional Experience

Case Study: The Woman Who Knows No Fear

Hippocampus: Emotional Memories

Ventral Striatum: Pleasure and Reward

Bringing It All Together: The Circuit of Papez and the Ring of Limbic Cortex

The Bigger Picture: The Ethics of Brain Stimulation in Human Beings

The Limbic Cortex and Emotions

The Interoceptive Insula: The "Feeling" Side of Emotions

Cingulate Cortex: A Motor Cortex for the Limbic System

Neuroscience of Everyday Life: Mental Effort

Ventromedial Prefrontal Cortex: A Generator of Gut Feelings

Limbic Association Cortex: Modulation of Emotion

The Mechanisms of Emotional Reappraisal

Brain Injury, Brain Stimulation, and Emotion Regulation

Neurochemical Influences on Emotion

Case Study: A Cure Born of Desperation

Serotonin and Mood

Norepinephrine and Mood

GABA and Anxiety



Chapter 14: Motivation and Reward

Learning Objectives

Starting Out: "More Important Than Survival Itself"

Motivation and Survival

Addiction: An Illness of Motivation

Why Motivation Matters

Feelings: The Sensory Side of Motivation

The Circuitry of Motivation: Basic Drives

Hypothalamus and Homeostatic Drives

Amygdala and External-World Drives

Midbrain Dopamine Neurons and the Common Currency of Motivation

Reward, Learning, and the Brain

Defining Reward

Learning from Reward Using Prediction Error

"Liking" Is Different from "Wanting"

Opioids and the Sensation of Pleasure

Opioids, Opioid Receptors, and Opioid Functions

Opioids and Reward

Dopamine, Learning, Motivation, and Reward

Dopamine Functions in Motivation and Reward

Unifying the Functions of Dopamine

Research Methods: Measuring Neurotransmitter Levels in the Brain

Neurotransmitters Are Messengers, Not Functions

Addiction: Pathological Learning and Motivation

Addictive Substances Have Distorted Reward Value

Neuroscience of Everyday Life: The Pursuit of Happiness

Addiction Is a Result of Pathological Learning

The Circuitry and Chemistry of Addiction

Unlearning Addiction

The Challenge of Treatment

Case Study: Pathological Gambling in a Patient with Parkinson's Disease

Existing Approaches to Treatment

Future Approaches to Treatment

The Bigger Picture: Finding the Motivation to Change



Chapter 15: Social Cognition

Learning Objectives

Starting Out: Why Risk Your Life for a Yellow T-shirt?

Social Perception

What's in a Face?

Do I Look Like a Liar to You?

Neuroscience of Everyday Life: A Poker Face

Social Knowledge and the Temporal Pole

Social Signals and the Superior Temporal Sulcus

Social Thinking: Theory of Mind

What Is Theory of Mind?

Neural Mechanisms of Theory of Mind

Mirror Neurons and Theory of Mind

Disorders of Theory of Mind

Social Feelings: Empathy and Its Many Components

An Emotional Theory of Mind

Empathy, Sympathy, and Compassion

Neural Mechanisms of Emotional Mimicry and Contagion

Neural Mechanisms of Empathy, Sympathy, and Antipathy

Disorders of Empathy

Social Emotions, Motivations, and Behavior

Social Emotions from Theory of Mind

Case Study: Acquired Sociopathy

Social Emotions from Social Values

Social Reward and Social Aversion

The Anatomy of a Lie

Neurotransmitters and Social Behavior

Research Methods: Transcranial Direct Current Stimulation

An Ancient and Fundamental System

Oxytocin

Vasopressin

The Bigger Picture: The Brave New World of the "Cuddle Hormone"?

The Social Self

The Wondrous Self-Awareness of the Human Brain

Forms of Self-Awareness

Why Bother with Self-Awareness?

Neural Correlates of Self-Awareness

Disorders of Self-Awareness

Self-Awareness and Social Cognition

Case Study: The Man in the Mirror



Part V: Disorders of Brain and Behavior



Chapter 16: Neurological and Psychiatric Disorders

Learning Objectives

Starting Out: Epilepsy: "The Sacred Disease"

Alzheimer's Disease: Burning Out with Age?

Frontotemporal Dementia: Like a Cancer of the Soul

Case Study: Ravel and "Bolero"

Huntington's Disease: A Genetic Rarity, in Two Senses

Tourette Syndrome: A Case of Involuntary Volition?

Obsessive-Compulsive Disorder: Neurological or Psychiatric?

Research Methods: Voxel-Based Morphometry

Schizophrenia: A Dementia of the Young

Bipolar Disorder

Depression: A Global Burden

Impact of Depression

Case Study: A Lifetime Studying, and Living with, Bipolar Disorder

Causes of Depression

Neurochemical Effects of Depression on the Brain

Functional Effects of Depression on the Brain

Treatment of Depression