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A comprehensive guide to essential theories and practices of change creation and implementation


Organizational Change provides an essential overview to implementing deliberate and focused change through effective communication strategies. Author Laurie Lewis integrates academic rigor with real-world case studies to provide a comprehensive examination of both theoretical and pragmatic approaches to alterations and modifications of organizational structures. Emphasizing the importance of formal and informal communication in implementation of change, this text investigates methods of information dissemination and examines various channels for communicating change. Coverage of stakeholder relationships, concepts of uncertainty and resistance, assessing change outcomes, and more provides readers with a solid foundational knowledge of change dynamics in organizations.


Extensively revised and updated, this second edition provides new case studies on topics such as design of input solicitation, and current research in areas including the persuasive effects of sidedness or inoculation, and socially supportive communication. Improved pedagogical tools, streamlined organization of topics, and additional charts, graphs, and images reinforce efficient presentation of material and increase reader retention and comprehension.





Examines empirical, theoretical, and conceptual approaches to strategic communication during organization change

Explores key elements of change, appropriate communication strategies, and outcome evaluation methods

Presents adaptive and programmatic strategic implementation models

Provides studies of real-world companies and actual research on organizational change

Debunks popular myths and clarifies misunderstandings of research and theory on implementation of change

Demonstrates how Individuals, groups, and entire organizations can create change and influence implementation.



Organizational Change provides a thorough survey of the communication and implementation strategies, methods, and conceptual foundations of change in public and private sector organizations, suitable for undergraduate and graduate study and practitioners with interest in complex change implementation.

Organizational Change - Creating Change Through Strategic Communication, Second Edition

Introduction 1





State of the Art 3





Weaknesses in Current Approaches to Change Implementation 4





A Stakeholder Theory Perspective 7





Highlight Box 1: Hershey Builds a Community 9





A Communication Perspective 12





Cases of Organizational Change 14





Ingredients Incorporated 14





Spellings Commission on Higher Education 15





Conclusion 18





1 Defining Organizational Change 20





The Role of Communication in Triggering Change 21





Failure in Change 24





What Is Organizational Change? 25





Drive?thru Diffusion 27





Communication, Social Pressure, and Diffusion 28





Highlight Box 1.1: The Malcolm Baldrige Award 30





Implementation 31





Understanding Key Terms 32





A Complex Model of Innovation, Diffusion, Adoption,and Implementation 34





Case Box 1.1: Ingredients Inc. Experiences Overlapping Changes 37





Types of Organizational Change 37





Complexity of Change Within Organizations 42





Interdependence 42





Structures 44





Politics 46





Case Box 1.2: Spellings Commission Political Positions Play a Role 48





Conclusion 49





2 Processes of Communication During Change 53





Formal Communication 54





Case Box 2.1: Spellings Commission - Responses to Change Announcement 55





Informal Communication 55





Importance of Communication 56





Communication Processes 57





Information Dissemination and Uncertainty 58





Common Practice Advice for Information Dissemination 62





Selecting Channels for Communicating Change 64





Case Box 2.2: Ingredients Inc. - Information Dissemination Campaigns 65





Informal Information Dissemination 66





Case Box 2.3: Spellings Commission - Stakeholders' Informational Campaign 67





Creating Knowledge 68





Soliciting Input 69





Practice Advice for Seeking Input 70





Voice and Empowerment 70





Design of Input Solicitation 73





Categorizing Approaches to Input Solicitation 76





Perspectives of Input Providers 79





Stakeholders' Input Solicitation 81





Case Box 2.4: Spellings Stakeholders Solicit Input from Each Other 82





Socialization 83





Case Box 2.5: Homeless Net Resists Altering Role Schema 87





Conclusion 88





3 A Stakeholder Communication Model of Change 94





Stakeholder Theory 95





Highlight Box 3.1: HUD As a Definitive Stakeholder for Agencies Serving Homeless Populations 99





Case Box 3.1: Homeless Net Implementation of Listserv Increases Awareness of Stakeholders 100





Complicating Stakeholder Relationships 102





Multiple Stakeholder Identities 104





Highlight Box 3.2: IT Reskilling Case Study - How Stakeholder Groups View Change Differently 107





Stakeholder Interactions 108





Highlight Box 3.3: Upton Sinclair Sets off Stakeholder Advocacy to Clean up Meat Packing Factories 109





Roles Stakeholders Play in Change 110





Opinion Leaders 110





Connectors 111





Counselors 112





Journalists 114





Highlight Box 3.4: Examples of "Alt" US Government 115





Stakeholder Model of Implementation of Change 115





Outcomes 116





Stakeholders' Concerns, Assessments, and Interactions 117





Communication Strategies 117





Antecedents 119





Model Overview 119





Conclusion 120





4 Outcomes of Change Processes 126





The Importance of Goals 127





Assessing Change Outcomes 128





Timing of Assessing Outcomes 129





Assessing Outcomes from Multiple Perspectives 129





Difficulty of Metrics of Success 131





Case Box 4.1: Homeless Net Struggles to Assess a Large Mission 132





Attribution Errors 133





Documenting Failure 135





Highlight Box 4.1: March of Dimes Succeeds to the Brink of Organizational Death 136





Assessing Change Outcomes 137





Fidelity and Uniformity 138





Organizational Goals 141





Authenticity 141





Assessing Results of Change 143





Case Box 4.2: Ingredients Inc. - Foreknowledge and Change Burnout 145





Causes for Implementation Failures and Successes 146





Conclusion 150





5 Communication Approaches and Strategies 156





Uniformity, Fidelity, and Models of Implementation 159





Communication Strategy Dimensions 162





Dissemination/Soliciting Input 162





Highlight Box 5.1: Gap's Campaign for Cultural Transformation 163





Highlight Box 5.2: CEO of Lego Transforms Co.Through Widespread Empowerment Strategy 165





Case Box 5.1: Spellings Stakeholders Solicit Input and Disseminate Information 167





Sidedness 168





Case Box 5.2: One? and Two?Sided Messages from Spellings Stakeholders 171





Reluctance to Acknowledge Negatives 172





Highlight Box 5.3: Companies Use Euphemisms to Avoid Saying "Layoffs" 173





Gain or Loss Frame 175





Targeted or Blanket Messages 177





Case Box 5.3: Memo to Ingredients Inc. 178





Case Box 5.4: Official Statement by the Department of Education on Spellings Commission Report 179





Discrepancy and Efficacy 181





Channels for Communicating 183





Conclusion 185





6 Power and Resistance 191





Power During Organizational Change 192





Case Box 6.1: Spellings Commission's Latent Power Recognized 195





Bases of Power 196





Case Box 6.2: Homeless Net Recognizes Expertise Power of Implementers 197





Meaning?Centered Approach to Power 198





Balances of Power 199





Highlight Box 6.1: JAR Technologies Experiences Concertive Control 202





Resistance During Change 202





Thinking Patterns that Explain Managers' "Resistance" Focus 203





Highlight Box 6.2: Defensive Routines in Implementing Strategy 205





What Is Resistance? 205





Forms of Resistance 208





Highlight Box 6.3: Mice Don't Overanalyze Change 210





Dispositional Resistance 216





Value of Resistance 218





The Facebook Example 219





Highlight Box 6.4: Moving Cheese Might Require Thoughtful Consideration 221





Conclusion 221





7 Antecedents to Strategies, Assessments,and Interactions 227





Institutional Factors 229





Implementers' Perceptions of Change Context 232





Assessing Stakeholders and Stakeholder Values 232





Case Box 7.1: Reactions of Powerful Stakeholders 235





Assessing Needs for Consensus?Building 236





Assessing Needs for Efficiency 237





Assessing Individual and Organizational Change History and Readiness 238





Case Box 7.2: History as Prologue? Spellings Report Triggers Comparisons to NCLB 239





Assessing Goals for Change 240





Case Box 7.3: Flip?Flopping on Anticipation of Change 241





Stakeholders' Perceptions of Change Context 242





Case Box 7.4: Discrepancy Messages Overplayed 244





Case Box 7.5: Supporting Stakeholders through Change 246





Conclusion 248





8 Stakeholder Interactions: Storying and Framing 253





Creating Stories and Storylines That Make Sense 255





Highlight Box 8.1: How We Make Stories 255





Case Box 8.1: Threads of Merger Stories 257





Highlight Box 8.2: Story of Bad Treatment 258





Making Stories 258





Case Box 8.2: Varying Stories About What Was Announced as Change 259





Framing 260





Frames Tell Stories from a Perspective 260





Interactional Frames 261





Contesting and Resisting Stories and Frames 262





Highlight Box 8.3: Attempts at Framing 263





"Managing Meaning" 264





How Non?Managerial Stakeholders "Manage Meaning" 265





Stories and Frames Create, Maintain, and Resolve Concerns 265





Concerns about Process or Substance of Change 268





Creating and Resolving Alliances, Rivalries, and Schisms 270





Highlight Box 8.4: Terse Telling 271





Highlight Box 8.5: "We Don't Want It Either" 272





Highlight Box 8.6: Reframing and Resistance 273





Which Stories and Frames Matter? 274





Highlight Box 8.7: Social Sensemaking Sets Up Material Disappointment 276





Conclusion 277





9 Applying the Model in Practice 281





Activity Tracks 282





Managing Meaning 283





Managing Networks 283





Managing Practice 284





Keeping Track of the "Tracks" 284





Stakeholders Must Manage Activity Tracks 285





Preview of Chapter and Case Introduction 286





Tools for Managing Activity Tracks 286





Monitoring and Articulating Goals 286





Highlight Box 9.1: Virtual Problems 287





Developing Strategic Messages and Strategic Communication Plan 291





Analysis of Input 294





Influencing Implementation Climate 297





Myths about Implementing Planned Change 299





Conclusion 302





Glossary 304





Index 315