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This new and extended edition of Chinese: An Essential Grammar is an up-to-date and concise reference guide to modern Chinese (Mandarin) grammar.


Refreshingly jargon-free, it presents an accessible description of the language, focusing on the real patterns of use today. This Grammar aims to serve as a reference source for the learner and user of Chinese, irrespective of level, setting out the complexities of the language in short, readable sections.


It is ideal either for independent study or for students in schools, colleges, universities and adult classes of all types.


Features include:











Three new chapters on speech habits, writing conventions and new lexicalisation processes







Chinese characters, as well as the pinyin romanisation, alongside all examples







Literal and colloquial translations into English to illustrate language points







Detailed contents list and index for easy access to information







A glossary of grammatical terms.

Chinese: An Essential Grammar

Contents





Preface





Introduction





The Chinese language





Mandarin pronunciation





The Chinese vocabulary





Part I Nouns





Introduction





1 Nouns





1.1 Noun features





1.2 Proper nouns





1.3 Common nouns





1.3.1 The plural suffix -men





1.3.2 Nouns and definite or indefinite reference





1.4 Nouns and conjunctions





1.5 Common nouns: countability





2 Numerals and nouns





2.1 Cardinal numbers





2.1.1 Two forms of the number two





2.2 Ordinal numbers





2.3 'Half'





2.4 Fractions, percentages, decimals, multiples and 'every'





2.5 Approximation





3 Measures for nouns





3.1 Measures and ge





3.2 Other measure words





3.3 Abstract nouns





3.4 Material nouns





3.5 Collective nouns





3.6 Relationship between measures and nouns





4 Pronouns





4.1 Personal pronouns





4.2 Possessive pronouns





4.3 Demonstrative pronouns





4.4 Interrogative pronouns





4.5 Other pronouns





4.6 Pronouns and conjunctions





5 Adjectives and attributives





5.1 Attributives





5.2 Adjectives as attributives





5.2.1 Monosyllabic adjectives





5.2.2 Polysyllabic adjectives and de





5.2.3 Disyllabic adjectives and de





5.3 Nominal attributives





5.3.1 Nominal attributives and de





5.4 Prepositional and postpositional phrases as attributives





5.5 Verbal phrases or clauses as attributives





5.6 The order of sequential attributives





5.7 Demonstrative and numeral phrases with other attributives





5.8 Possessive pronoun and other attributives





5.9 Er between adjectives





5.10 Omission of the noun following an attributive





5.11 Attributives in word-formation





Part II Verbs





Introduction





6 Adjectival and nominal predicates; the verb shi





6.1 Adjectival predicates





6.2 Adjectival predicates and the verb 'to be'





6.2.1 Adjectival predicates and degree adverbs





6.2.2 Adjectival predicates in the negative





6.2.3 Adjectival predicates followed by verbs





6.3 Non-gradable adjectives as attributives





6.3.1 Attributives of shape, colour or material





6.4 Nominal and pronominal predicates





6.4.1 Verbs resembling shi





6.4.2 Nominal predicates without a copula





6.5 The copula shi in its negative form





7 The verb you; comparisons





7.1 The functions of you





7.1.1 You indicating possession





7.1.2 Mei as negative of you





7.1.3 You indicating change or development





7.1.4 You forming idiomatic expressions





7.1.5 You introducing adjectival predicates





7.2 Comparison





7.2.1 Emphatic or specific comparison





7.2.2 Negative comparison





7.2.3 Comparison: equivalence or similarity





7.3 Comparatives and superlatives





8 Verbs and aspect markers





8.1 Action, state and dative verbs





8.2 Action verbs





8.3 Aspect markers





8.3.1 Le





8.3.2 Guo





8.3.3 Zai





8.3.4 Zhe





8.4 State verb





8.5 Dative verbs





8.5.1 Dative verbs relating to spoken activity





8.5.2 Dative verbs and aspect markers





8.6 Causative verbs





8.7 Imperatives





8.7.1 Polite requests





8.7.2 Imperatives and aspect markers





9 Motion verbs and direction indicators





9.1 Motion verbs and simple direction indicators





9.2 Motion verbs and compound direction indicators





9.3 Motion verbs with metaphorical meaning





9.4 Direction indicators with specific meanings





10 Verbs and time





10.1 Time expressions





10.2 Point of time expressions





10.2.1 Detailed time expressions





10.3 Point-of-time expressions incorporating verbal phrases





10.4 Imprecise points of time





10.5 Indefinite points of time





10.6 Frequency expressions with mei





10.7 Time expressions in existence sentences





10.7.1 Time expressions in emergence or disappearance sentences





11 Verbs and location





11.1 Location expressions





11.2 Zai and postpositional phrases





11.2.1 Disyllabic postpositions





11.2.2 Disyllabic postpositions as location pronouns





11.3 Simple location sentences





11.4 Location phrases modifying main verbs





11.5 Location phrases in existence sentences





11.5.1 Shi in existence sentences





11.5.2 Zhe in existence sentences





11.6 Le in emergence or disappearance sentences





11.7 Order of sequence of time and location phrases





12 Verbs: duration and frequency





12.1 Duration expressions





12.1.1 Duration expressions and noun objects





12.1.2 Repetition of the verb in a noun-object-duration structure





12.1.3 Duration expressions and pronoun objects





12.1.4 Duration expressions in dative construction





12.1.5 Duration expressions and definite reference





12.2 Brief duration





12.2.1 Brief duration and instrumental objects





12.3 Frequency expressions





13 Verbs and complements





13.1 Complements





13.2 Complements of result





13.3 Potential complements





13.3.1 Potential complements using direction indicators





13.3.2 Metaphorical meanings of potential complements





13.4 Complements of manner and of consequential state





13.4.1 Modification of complement of manner





13.4.2 Complement of consequential state





13.4.3 Complements of manner or consequential state with a 'verb + object' verb





13.4.4 Adjectival complements of manner in comparisons





13.4.5 Complement-of-manner comparison with a 'verb + object' verb





13.5 Complement of location or destination





13.6 Degree complements





14 Verbs and adverbials





14.1 Adverbials of manner





14.1.1 Monosyllabic adjectives as adverbials of manner





14.1.2 Adverbials of manner with marked verbs





14.1.3 Adverbials of manner with unmarked verbs





14.1.4 Monosyllabic adverbial modifiers without de





14.1.5 Particular types of adverbials of manner





14.2 Attitudinal adverbial expressions





14.3 Referential adverbs





14.4 Referential adverbs with negatives





14.5 Order of sequence of referential adverbs





14.6 Order of adverbials in sequence





15 Modal and similar verbs





15.1 Modal, attitudinal and intentional verbs





15.2 Modal verbs





15.2.1 Modal verbs and adverbs of degree





15.2.2 Modal verbs and comparison





15.3 Attitudinal verbs





15.3.1 Wangle and jide





15.3.2 Gaoxing





15.4 Intentional verbs





15.4.1 Negation of intentional verbs





Part III Sentences





Introduction





16 Statements and the sentence particle le





16.1 Le as a sentence particle





16.2 Functions of sentence le





16.2.1 Summing-up function of le





16.2.2 Le as both sentence particle and aspect marker





16.3 Cases where sentence le is not used





16.4 Ultimate versatility of sentence le





17 Questions





17.1 Question-word questions





17.1.1 Zenmeyang





17.1.2 Duo in questions





17.1.3 Ne in questions





17.2 General questions with ma





17.3 Surmise questions with ba





17.4 Affirmative-negative questions





17.5 Alternative questions with haishi





17.6 Tags indicating suggestion





17.7 Tags seeking confirmation





17.8 Rhetorical questions





18 Subject and predicate; topic and comment





18.1 Dual patterning of sentence structures





18.2 Subject-predicate sentences





18.3 Topic-comment sentences





18.3.1 Further ways to form topic-comment sentences





18.4 Topic | subject-predicate sentences





18.4.1 Notional passive sentences





18.5 Subject | topic-comment sentences





19 Prepositions and coverbs





19.1 Coverbs





19.1.1 Coverbs of place and time





19.1.2 Coverbs of methods and means





19.1.3 Coverbs of human exchange and service





19.1.4 Coverbs of reference





19.1.5 Coverbs and comparison





19.2 Disyllabic prepositions





20 Ba and bei constructions





20.1 The ba construction





20.1.1 The ba construction and complements





20.1.2 Le and zhe as complements in ba sentences





20.1.3 Ba and resultative complements





20.1.4 Nong and gao in ba sentences





20.1.5 Negative ba sentences





20.1.6 Ba and modal verbs





20.1.7 Ba and indefinite reference





20.2 The bei construction





20.2.1 Rang and jiao





20.2.2 The bei construction with an agent





20.2.3 Negative bei sentences





20.3 The bei construction versus the notional passives





21 Serial constructions





21.1 General features of serial constructions





21.2 Semantic varieties in serial constructions





21.3 Adjectives or state verbs in serial constructions





21.4 Dative constructions





21.5 Causative constructions





21.5.1 Qing in a causative construction





21.5.2 Extended causative constructions





21.6 Extended serial constructions





22 Emphasis and the intensifier shi





22.1 Shi as an intensifier





22.2 The shi ... de construction





22.2.1 Subject and object emphasis in shi ... de sentences





22.2.2 Shi ... de construction and bu





22.3 Shi without de for progression and projection





22.3.1 Contexts for shi (without de) sentences





22.3.2 Shi and comparison





22.3.3 Shi and negation





22.4 Shi and topic-comment sentences





22.4.1 Shi implying reservation





22.4.2 'Verb/adjective + shi + verb/adjective' implying reservation





22.5 Repetition and emphasis





23 Abbreviation and omission





23.1 Three types of abbreviation





23.2 Conventional abbreviations as subjectless sentences





23.3 Contextual abbreviation





23.4 Cotextual omissions





23.4.1 Cotextual omissions and headwords





23.4.2 Cotextual omissions in answers





23.4.3 Contextual/cotextual omissions in extended passages





24 Composite sentences: conjunctions and conjunctives





24.1 Types of composite sentence





24.2 Conjunctions and conjunctives





24.2.1 Meanings and functions of composite sentences





24.2.2 Paired conjunctives





24.3 Composite sentences as parallel structures





24.4 Verbs taking object clauses





25 Exclamations and interjections; appositions; and apostrophes





25.1 Exclamations





25.1.1 Exclamations with tai





25.1.2 Question-word questions as exclamations





25.2 Interjections





25.2.1 Tone variations in interjections





25.3 Appositions





25.4 People being addressed [apostrophe]





Part IV Paragraphs





Introduction





26.1 A diary





26.2 A letter





26.3 A dialogue





26.4 A welcome speech





26.5 A description





26.6 An explanatory piece of writing





The way to learn Chinese words





26.7 An argumentative piece of writing





Part V Speech habits: meaning and form





Introduction





27.1 Universal, cotextual or contextual omissions and abbreviations





27.1.1 Sentence patterns (1)





27.1.2 Sentence patterns (2)





27.2 Sentence extension following paragraph patterns





27.3 Further features of sentence extension





27.3.1 Sentences extended by illustration or exemplification





27.3.2 Sentences extended by reasoning





27.3.3 Sentences extended by detailing or amplification





27.3.4 Sentences extended by result or purpose





Part VI Writing conventions: classical quadrisyllabic patterns or idioms





Introduction





28.1 An overview of four-character or quadrisyllabic idioms





28.1.1 The distinction between quadrisyllabic patterns and quadrisyllabic idioms





28.1.2 The internal structure of quadrisyllabic idioms





28.2 Quadrisyllabic idioms at work





28.3 How quadrisyllabic idioms mix comfortably with other rhythms in writing





Part VII Contemporary developments in Chinese: new syntatctic and lexical tendencies





Introduction





29 Contemporary linguistic developments





29.1 New syntactic tendencies





29.1.1 Shift of word classes





29.1.2 Extensive use of pseudo-)suffixes or (pseudo-)prefixes





29.1.3 Multi-syllabic coinages on 'attributive + headword' syntactic pattern





29.2 New ways of lexicalisation





29.2.1 Direct borrowings





29.2.2 Semantic/phonetic calques (total or partial)





29.2.3 Intra-language transliterations





29.2 4 Internet neologisms





29.2.5 Neologisms occurring in conversational exchanges





29.2.6 Abbreviations from quadrisyllabic idioms











Glossary of grammatical terms





Index